Karlan, Appel, Duflo and Banerjee tackle that question through randomized control trials (RCTs).
Rather than letting otherwise substantial facts speak for themselves, Karlan and Appel over qualify their evidence.
After Appel had paid expenses and taken his considerable cut, the pay was next to nothing.
They also might be legally invalid, warns Andrew Appel, a professor of computer science at Princeton.
Click here for a video with more information on Marvin Appel's recommendation of Northeast Investors Trust.
For updates and more in-depth analysis from Gerald and Marvin Appel, please click here.
Before joining Springsteen, Appel wrote jingles for Kleenex and a song for the Partridge Family.
Dr Gonthier used similar techniques to those of Dr Appel and Dr Haken in his proof.
Appel has reportedly stepped in as a temporary replacement for Zumwinkel, but his new job could well become permanent.
Bruce Springsteen hired him in the 1970s to break a contract with Michael Appel, then his manager.
After that show, Springsteen swore to Appel that he would never open or play big venues again.
Karlan and Appel detail how microloans have made a positive impact throughout the developing world in unexpected ways.
The prime minister's camp is chagrined by the silence of his Likud colleagues since Mr Appel was indicted.
The main charge concerns a tourism project that Mr Appel tried to launch in 1999-2000 on a Greek island.
Appel looks at moving averages to discern trend, particularly the moving average convergence-divergence.
Appel notes that such patterns typically require three to six weeks to form.
Police also found one of the tear-gas canisters inside the theater, Appel said.
Mr Sharon was foreign minister at the time, and the police have recommended that Mr Appel be indicted for bribery.
Appel points out that the rally has favored large-cap growth stocks and has also given a boost to high-yield corporate bonds.
Two high-yield bond funds Appel is still holding: Northeast Investors Trust ( NTHEX) and Federated High-Yield Trust ( FHYTX) .
"The rally of the past four days could be a case of 'buy on the rumor, sell on the news, '" says Appel.
After a prolonged legal battle that kept Springsteen out of the studio for two years, Appel was bought off and cast out.
Marvin Appel , co-editor of Gerald Appel's Systems and Forecasts, also sees reason for caution after the huge advance--but he's still bullish.
Appel assumes a stable outlook for interest rates through the end of the year, in the wake of extreme oversold conditions in May.
Gilad, with no prior experience in the tourism industry, was to advise Mr Appel on building a resort complex on a Greek island.
District Attorney Frank Ruybalid said she was educated enough to know better, and asked Appel to consider their entire cross-country flight from the law.
Appel took the painful decision of pulling out and, in a well-timed deal, sold DHL's stake in DeutschePostbank to Deustche Bank in September 2008.
Northeast Investors Trust is recommended in Gerald Appel's Systems and Forecasts.
Springsteen told Appel that he was bringing in Landau as co-producer.
More controversially, Mr Appel hired Mr Sharon's farmer son, Gilad, who had no experience in tourism, at a huge salary, ostensibly to help with the project.
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