When young Egyptians crowded into Cairo's Tahrir Square, they wanted rights, not a caliph.
In 688, Caliph Abd al-Malik began building the Dome of the Rock, which still stands on that site today.
The percentages fixed in Muhammad's time applied only to mining and agriculture (and, agonised one early caliph, were pomegranates exempt?).
Congregants, he said, should nominate a global body to elect a new Caliph, replacing the Ottoman ruler whose downfall Europe had engineered.
The Paris exhibition ends in 1957 with a fine drawing by Frank Lloyd Wright of a monument to the legendary caliph Haroun al-Rashid.
They are less concerned to pay respects to their former rulers than to honour their status as Caliph, head of the Islamic faith.
Shia revere Ali, the prophet Muhammad's son-in-law and Islam's fourth caliph.
AD, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur consulted a Persian astrologer called Nawbakht to find a conjunction of the planets favourable to laying the foundation stone for a new capital.
Made in 968 for the youngest son of the Caliph of Cordoba, it features men variously listening to music, plucking dates or nabbing eggs from a falcon's nest.
In 656, Caliph Uthman, the third caliph to rule after the death of the Prophet, was assassinated at his home in Medina (now Saudi Arabia) by besieging Muslim rebels from Mesopotamia.
While its tactics may differ from, say, al Qaeda's, the Brotherhood's objectives are identical: the supremacy of Islam and the establishment of a theocratic ruler, the Caliph, who is to govern worldwide in accordance with shariah.
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Its stated purpose is to replace sovereign, secular nations like the United States with a transnational Islamic order governed by a ruling authority, the Sunni's Caliph or his Shiite counterpart, with Shariah as its foundational law or constitution.
Ultimately, the plan calls for the use of violence to take over our government, clearing the way for the triumph of Islam worldwide and the reestablishment of a global ruler, the Caliph, who will govern in accordance with shariah.
These historic events form the background to this short, arresting historical novel, written almost as a prose poem, which recounts the Dome's construction from the viewpoint of one of the Caliph's advisers, who is of Jewish origin but has adopted the new Muslim creed.
The great historical paradox of the Crimean war and of the longer-term Russo-Turkish conflict of which it was one episode is that Anglican England and Roman Catholic France were aligned with Islam's sultan-caliph against the tsars who saw themselves as the world's last truly Christian emperors.
For example, the Saudis have helped counter al-Qaeda inside their kingdom, even as they fund its operations and those of others, like the Muslim Brotherhood, who share the violent jihadists' goal of imposing the politico-military-legal program known as shariah under a global ruler, the caliph.
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Cognitive warfare, or what the Muslim Brotherhood calls "civilization jihad, " is about creating the conditions under which so-called "non-violent" Islamists can achieve their ultimate objective - which is precisely the same as the one pursued by their violent co-religionists: imposing shariah worldwide and a Caliph to rule according to it.
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While the MB espouses techniques associated with a stealthy or "civilization" jihad, these methods are to be employed to advance precisely the same goals as are espoused by al Qaeda and others who favor terrifying violence: the global triumph of the totalitarian program known as shariah under a single Islamic ruler (or Caliph).
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