It is because of that fear that doctors order unnecessary tests and procedures in an attempt to cover themselves in case of lawsuits, and it is the reason health care professionals think twice about sharing information in writing or even verbally, lest it be used against them.

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These kinds of studies are done under the strict supervision of professionals, with emergency medicine nearby in case of a severe reaction, experts said.

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In this case, the disciplined lawyers seem to have ignored a fundamental rule for professionals of all stripes: Clients must give informed consent.

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Officials of of the Internal Revenue Service and the U.S. Department of Justice declined to tell an audience of tax professionals in Beverly Hills Tuesday the criteria by which a civil case can turn criminal, a development that considerably ups the stakes for the taxpayer.

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By contrast, in the case of brokerage and investment firms, and to some extent technology firms, the brand is owned by key professionals.

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