Pions are particles created by the collision of the high-energy protons from the supernovas.
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Lead, being heavier than tin, has more protons in its nucleus (82, against tin's 50).
The hydrogen (one proton) and the boron (five protons and six neutrons) do not really fuse.
Nevertheless, the idea that protons as well as electrons can quantum tunnel is a striking one.
The numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50 and 82 are magic for both protons and neutrons.
An idea was being floated to use protons and their antimatter equivalents to do just that.
On one side of the membrane, hydrogen is decomposed into its constituent electrons and protons.
Protons left behind by the oxygen migrated to a second electrode made of platinum and formed into hydrogen.
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It has been known since the 1960s that protons are made of smaller particles called quarks and gluons.
The element carbon usually has six protons and six neutrons, and when it does it is called carbon 12.
For a nucleus to spin at all, the total number of protons and neutrons it contains must be odd.
But protons are far bigger, and the idea that they might be able to quantum tunnel is more controversial.
The electrons disappear into the electrode, while the protons pass through the membrane.
Here, they recombine with the protons, and also oxygen atoms, to make water.
But theorists disagree on what might be the next magic number for protons.
The resultant conditions then create quarks, which are the fundamental particles that make up the protons and neutrons of atoms.
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The researchers suspect that protons as well as electrons are undergoing quantum tunnelling, that is, hydrogen itself is quantum tunnelling.
Beryllium-10 can be produced in the Sun when highly energetic protons bombard the nuclei of other elements like carbon and oxygen.
The reaction Mr Lerner proposes would break up boron atoms by hitting them with protons (the nuclei of normal hydrogen atoms).
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After they are produced, the quarks and anti-quarks then combine to create protons and neutrons, which themselves combine to produce atomic nuclei.
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These environments should also be able to accelerate protons to near light-speed.
They argue that this happens because the enzymes move in such a way that it becomes possible for protons to quantum tunnel.
These are thought to be the sources of cosmic rays, which are high-velocity charged particles (mainly protons) that constantly bombard the earth.
On its own, the pressure exerted by the protons and electrons of the solar wind is even more feeble than the photon pressure.
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That shift rips protons from the molecular chains of Dr Kiser's jelly-like solid, leaving exposed negative charges primed to form bonds with water molecules.
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The antiprotons themselves, which are produced by smashing regular protons into a piece of iridium, are around 100 billion times more energetic than this.
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Stars form most easily from molecular hydrogen, but for the first few million years, most hydrogen would have been ionised into protons and electrons.
Those primeval life-forms use a simple type of cellular pump that pushes sodium out of the cell while pulling positively charged protons in.
Another was that no one knew how much the Higgs would weigh, and therefore how fast the protons needed to be travelling to make it.
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