All political news is now interpreted through the refractive lens of Mr Brown's failings.
When light travels through glass, it slows down (the amount it slows is measured by a number called the refractive index).
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Money in hand, Carpenter plunged into the most lucrative area in eye care today: refractive laser eye surgery to correct faulty vision.
From the refractive index of each path it is possible with the application of some suitably crunchy computing power to produce a three-dimensional image.
They consist of two interlaced materials that have different optical properties in particular, different refractive indices, a measure of how much a substance bends light.
Dr Feld also has plans to use beams of different colours, since each colour has a slightly different refractive index in a given material.
Inside the BEC, the so-called refractive index (which measures the slowing of light) becomes enormous: as high as 100 trillion times greater than that of glass.
In the right circumstances, they can be created by manipulating the refractive indices of materials in the way that Dr Turberfield and Dr Denning are doing.
To measure the refractive indices of different parts of a cell they use a technique called interferometry, which involves splitting a beam of light in two.
He plans to cut a series of concentric circles into the surface of a piece of diamond, a material with one of the highest refractive indices known.
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Shining an appropriate light on such a wire from the outside would alter its refractive index (a measure of how fast light travelling inside the wire can move).
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