Again, these plasmids occur naturally in nature; they were discovered particularly in micro-organisms have plasmids that confer biological properties onto them.

此外,质粒存在于自然界中,质粒是在微生物中发现的,它们也赋予了微生物一些生物学特性

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

Now most diabetics take human insulin made, not in humans, but made in micro-organisms that are growing in a manufacturing facility.

而现在,多数糖尿病患者用人的胰岛素,不是来自人体,而是来自工厂的微生物车间

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

The fact of the matter is, demon theory doesn't do a very good job of explaining disease, while germ theory does do a good job.

事实上,恶魔理论并不能很好地解释疾病的问题,而微生物理论却能将问题分析得很透彻

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So, not just a spectrum of viruses, but there's viruses and bacteria and parasites and other microorganisms that can cause disease.

所以,不是只有病毒,还有病毒,细菌,寄生虫,和其它各种微生物都能导致疾病

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

Also, shows you something about the challenge of it, because we are susceptible to attack from lots of different kinds of microorganisms.

同样也向你们展示这其中的一些挑战,因为我们也容易受到,各类微生物感染的危害

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So, this is a cell that's infected with a microorganism, it's infected with a virus, let's say it's infected with influenza virus.

这是一个感染了微生物的细胞,它感染了一种病毒,就说是感染了流感病毒吧

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

This restriction enzyme was found in a natural source, it was found in a micro-organism called E.coli.

这个限制性内切酶源于自然界,是从名为大肠杆菌的微生物中发现的

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

And so this slide just illustrates that in a simple way, the range of different kinds of organisms that your immune system is trying to--whoops!

这个幻灯片只是简要概括了,各种不同微生物的范围,你的免疫系统正在尝试,噢

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

You might not know have any symptoms, you might just have a latent source of the microorganism somewhere in your body.

你可能没有任何症状,微生物可能只是在体内某处,暗中不断滋生

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

And so this is a substantial change in the interaction of a microorganism with a population, right?

所以这是微生物和人类,之间关系的一个巨大改变,对吧

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So, how could you produce--the question is, how could you produce large quantities of this- of this microorganism, this virus vaccinia under controlled conditions?

问题是该怎么进行生产,你怎么大批量生产这种微生物,即在可控条件下生产牛痘病毒

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

A lot of didn't get sick from it now, and we got sick from it before.

许多人不会再因为微生物得病了,而人们以前则会因此生病

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

That is a way of putting a cloned gene into a micro-organism and then using that micro-organism as sort of a factory for the protein.

这方法把克隆基因植入微生物之后,将其作为某种形式的蛋白质工厂

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

And I've already given you some clues about this, in that this process of vaccination that Jenner had developed was intentionally injecting into healthy patients, a microorganism.

我刚刚已经向你们提示了一些,在詹纳发明的接种过程里,故意把微生物注射到健康病人身上

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

Any molecule can be an antigen; the food that you eat is full of antigens, microbes that try to live in your body are full of antigens.

任何分子都可以成为抗原,你吃的食物中富含抗原,试图栖息在你身体中的微生物充满抗原

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Antibiotics are chemicals, usually small organic molecules that will kill micro-organisms like bacteria.

抗生素是一类化学物质,它们通常是小分子有机物,能够杀死细菌这样的微生物

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

So look, why am I justified in believing in germs, various kinds of viruses that I can't see, or bacteria or what have you, that I can't see?

所以,我为什么相信微生物,相信各种肉眼无法看到的病毒,细菌等诸如此类我看不到的东西确实存在

耶鲁公开课 - 死亡课程节选

You take that plasmid; you put in the micro-organism you're going to make many,many copies of that plasmid.

你把一个质粒放进微生物体内,你就会得到,很多很多质粒的拷贝

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

Other kinds of microorganisms reproduce and cause tissue damage in a different way.

其他种类微生物的繁殖,也可以以其他形式引起组织的损害

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

if you do that under the situation where you've put your plasmid into these micro-organisms then you're going to have little colonies that grow many copies of the bacterial cells.

如果你在质粒已经进入了微生物,的情况下培养它们,你就会得到许多小菌落,里面长有很多增殖出来的细菌

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

So we're justified in believing in germs, but not demons.

所以,我们相信微生物理论合理,而恶魔理论则不合理

耶鲁公开课 - 死亡课程节选

We've got, roughly, germ theory and we've got demon theory.

把它们概括一下,微生物理论和恶魔理论

耶鲁公开课 - 死亡课程节选

Drugs like antibiotics, Penicillin, Erythromycin, again something else you probably all had experience with and you think well that's not Biomedical Engineering that's science, that's somebody discovering a molecule that kills microorganisms.

像抗生素,青霉素和红霉素这样的药物,你们都用过这些药,你不认为这属于生物医学工程的研究范围,而认为是科学的产物,科学家发现这种分子能够杀灭微生物

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

This is one of the biological properties, the naturally occurring properties of plasmids, is that they exist in microbial populations and they confer on them resistance from toxins that would ordinarily kill them.

这就是这类生物学特性之一,它是质粒所具有的自然特性,这些质粒存在于微生物群体中,并赋予微生物抗性,使它们免于被毒素杀死

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

But in any event, the vaccine is intended to stimulate the immune system to produce an effector response— either antibodies or specific cells— that can combat spread of the microorganism through your body.

但无论如何,疫苗是通过,刺激免疫系统来使身体产生应答,无论是抗体还是特定的细胞,都可以阻止微生物在体内扩散

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The reason is that because of the ways that different microorganisms take the ways the different microorganisms reproduce and damage cells and tissue within your body, you need different ways to respond to them effectively.

因为不同的微生物以不同的方式,以不同的方式繁殖,和损害体内的组织和细胞,你需要多种有效的免疫反应来对付它们

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选

It's the better explanation.

相较之下,微生物理论是更好的解释

耶鲁公开课 - 死亡课程节选

So being a micro-organism that got a plasmid that give you resistance to an antibiotic would be a good thing - that gave you resistance to something that naturally killed cells like you in your environment would be a good thing.

假如一个微生物,因含有质粒而具有抗生素抗性,这实在是一桩美事--,在同样的环境下,普通细胞会被杀死,而你们这些具有抗性的细胞却安然无恙,这实在太棒了

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It's totally synthetic, there's no micro-organism involved in making the DNA for you, You can do it very rapidly in a laboratory, and fairly inexpensively now.

完全是复制的过程,没有任何微生物参与制造DNA,你可以在实验室里迅速地进行,费用现在也相当便宜了

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The promoter in this case is called the lac promoter and normally in micro-organisms that lac promoter is used to produce a gene called lacZ which makes a protein called beta-galactosidase.

在这个例子中的启动子称作lac启动子,通常在微生物中,lac启动子是用来生成,一段叫lacZ的基因,这段基因,能制造一种蛋白叫β-半乳糖苷酶

耶鲁公开课 - 生物医学工程探索课程节选