In the late Middle Ages, it was customary to scrape away the surface of the parchment with an abrasive, which completely wiped out any writing that was there.

在中世纪后期，人们习惯用磨料刮去羊皮纸的表面，把纸上的所有文字都擦得干干净净。

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None of the European adventurers who wrote up their travels through Asia in the late Middle Ages remark on it.

没有一位在中世纪晚期游历过亚洲的欧洲人在其游记中为此留下过一笔。

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The shroud was also damaged by a fire in the late Middle Ages which could have added carbon material, resulting in a higher radiocarbon content and a later calculated age.

这块裹尸布在中世纪后期遭到火灾破坏，也可能会增加另外的碳元素，这样会产生高放射性的碳素使计算的年代有所延迟。

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The first ones, in the late Middle Ages, specialised in commercial news, mainly from abroad.

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But it has some important exceptions: Even in the late middle ages, the theologians-cum-proto-economists realized that the arbitrage effect is net of transportation costs.

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One should not downplay the importance of literacy, too, as the printing press and the ability to mass-produce cheap paper ignited an explosion in publishing throughout Europe in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

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