They also opened in Syria, especially in the cosmopolitan city of Aleppo, and then in Istanbul, the capital of the vast Ottoman Turkish Empire, in 1554.

BBC: Coffee and qahwa: How a drink for Arab mystics went global

Part of the Turkish Ottoman empire from the 16th century, Algeria was conquered by the French in 1830 and was given the status of a "departement".

BBC: Algeria profile

These two slightly dusty inland towns are notable for their Turkish-speaking minorities, holdovers from the Ottoman Empire, who still purvey succulent Eastern sweets such as lokum and baklava.

BBC: Driving Greece's modern ancient highway, the Egnatia Odos

Regarding the latter, the progressive, centuries-long, gradual decline of Islam as a dominant force and civilization reached its nadir in 1924, when Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) simultaneously did away with the Caliphate and the Ottoman Empire by overnight transforming the latter into a secular Turkish republic.

CENTERFORSECURITYPOLICY: Alexiev testifies on Wahhabi influence in US

There are also the Turkomens, stay-behinds from the days when Mosul was the capital of one of the three Ottoman vilayets (administrative regions) that were crudely lumped together to form Iraq when the Turkish empire collapsed after the first world war.

ECONOMIST: Iraq