Measuring economic costs weighs the expense of both vaccination and illness against the net present value of the future earnings of someone who would otherwise die from the disease.

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The stock's present multiples of book value, earnings and sales all fall below their five-year averages.

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It calculates an intrinsic value by discounting a stream of future earnings back to the present, using a discount rate that is a function of both Aaa bond yields and the creditworthiness of the target company.

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You can calculate a stream of earnings off the asset, apply an assumed discount rate and determine a present value for the assets.

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Another survey revealed that 78 percent of managers would reject an NPV (net present value)-positive project if it would lower quarterly earnings below consensus expectations, and 80 percent would focus on this short-term metric at the expense of building long-term shareholder value.

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