Down-stream commercial and value-added activities development of farming, wood products, and fisheries industry communities.
And whether seaborne commerce would attract the kind of high-value-added activities that Mr Brunetta wants is also questionable.
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Behind this, says Mr Spence, is the trend of American multinationals to keep the highest value-added activities at home while shifting lower value-added activities, such as manufacturing, abroad.
"Growing and processing herbal medicine are value-added activities that will create new income sources - and provide substitutes for unprofitable crops, as well as cheap alternative medicine for everyone, " she says.
Many products and services are created along supply chains that travel from idea conception to final consumption and that include value-added activities of varying degrees of labor-, physical capital-, and intellectual capital-intensity.
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One goal of this approach is to eliminate non-value-added activities in Chrysler plants in a thoroughgoing way that the company never has attempted before, down to shaving steps required by an assembly-line operator to complete a given task by asking the worker to redesign the job.
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America is going through the same process of decline and denial that Britain went through in the 1950s and 1960s, the authors argue: rather than freeing people to move to more value-added activities, the loss of manufacturing jobs can lead to the loss of entire ecosystems of innovation.
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It started at the simplest of activities in the value chain, then, decision by decision, every time that Dell outsourced the next lowest-value-adding of the remaining activities in its business, Asus added a higher value-adding activity to its business.
The added value of these non-formal learning activities is that they result in a variety of skills, ranging from economically beneficial and socially useful skills, to skills for self-development.
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