It is concluded that mathematicians formed and calculated mainly by means of written calculation with pen and paper in the Qing Dynasty.
讨论了清代使用的各种计算手段，指出清代数学家在数学研究中采用的计算手段和演算方法主要是笔算。
This paper gives a skill calculating deflections of frame beams by the method of combining written calculation with zooming and discusses some related problems.
本文提出了一个手、电算结合计算框架梁挠度的技巧，分析了采用这一方法的必要性及相关问题。
Each calculation is written in a corresponding program. As a program block, it may be called anywhere in the course of surveying computation.
每项计算可写出相应的计算程序，作为程序块，在测量计算中随时加以应用。
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